Fathers 4 Justice South Africa

The Fake Narrative of the Perceived Superiority of Mothers in Their Child’s Life

For the average South African father, married or unmarried, to exercise his paternal, parental rights that ALREADY exist in law, he is automatically compelled to engage in unnecessary, costly, and protracted legal battles to secure his rights and responsibilities regarding his contact, care, guardianship, and maintenance of his children.
Ergo, South African fathers are held to an intentionally unattainable, deliberately unreasonable, and wholly unrealistic constitutional, legal, and financial standard.
While simultaneously having his constitutional, legal and financial rights and responsibilities annihilated.
All the while, false allegations abound and the relationship between the father and child is purposely obliterated by a psychopathic, violently gynocentric, hostile, misandrist, insane legal justice system.

Put another way, South African fathers were never, are, and will never be the problem!

Author: Chairman of the Official Fathers 4 Justice South Africa, Gary Da Silva, 11 April 2025

The pervasive and illegal narrative in South Africa that mothers inherently possess a superior legal role and rights in the upbringing of children is not only outdated but exceptionally harmful. This belief, deeply entrenched in societal norms and judicial practices, continues to influence custody decisions despite being legally abolished. The tender age rule and the maternal preference rule, which historically favoured mothers in custody battles, were officially outlawed two decades ago. However, the justice system and the divorce industry persist in applying these archaic principles, thereby perpetuating a cycle of harm that disproportionately affects fathers and their relationships with their children.

The Constitution of South Africa and the Children’s Act 38 of 2005 advocate for gender equality and the best interests of the child in all matters concerning children. These legal frameworks are designed to ensure that both parents are given equal consideration in custody decisions. Section 9 of the Constitution explicitly prohibits unfair discrimination on the grounds of gender, emphasizing that everyone is equal before the law and entitled to equal protection and benefit of the law. Despite these provisions, the reality in South African courts often tells a different story.

The continued application of the maternal preference and tender age rules, albeit unofficially, reflects a deep-seated bias within the judicial system. This bias is not only unconstitutional but also detrimental to the well-being of children. Psychological research underscores the importance of maintaining strong relationships with both parents post-divorce. Studies have shown that active fatherhood positively impacts children’s cognitive abilities, social behaviours, and emotional well-being. When courts favour mothers by default, they disrupt the paternal bond, leading to emotional distress, behavioural issues, and difficulties in social relationships for the children involved.

Statistics from the General Household Survey 2019 reveal that 42% of children in South Africa live only with their mothers, while a mere 4% live only with their fathers. This disparity suggests a societal trend that is mirrored in legal outcomes, where mothers are overwhelmingly granted primary care of their children. The lack of detailed national statistics on primary care awards post-divorce makes it challenging to quantify this bias directly. However, anecdotal evidence and societal patterns indicate that fathers face systemic challenges in obtaining primary caregiving roles.

The perpetuation of the narrative that mothers are superior caregivers is not only unfounded but also harmful. It undermines the constitutional principle of equality and disregards the significant contributions that fathers make to their children’s upbringing. Fathers bring unique and equally important qualities to parenting, and their involvement is crucial for the holistic development of their children. By continuing to favour mothers in custody decisions, the justice system not only violates the rights of fathers but also fails to serve the best interests of the child.

The impact of this bias extends beyond individual families, contributing to the broader issue of fatherlessness in South Africa. Fathers are often unfairly blamed for being absent in their children’s lives when, in reality, the legal system works against them. This systemic bias not only severs the relationship between fathers and their children but also perpetuates a cycle of harm that affects future generations.

To address this issue, it is imperative to reform the judicial practices and societal attitudes that favour mothers by default. This includes comprehensive data collection on primary care awards, judicial training on gender bias, and public awareness campaigns to challenge traditional stereotypes. Promoting shared parenting and ensuring that both parents are given fair consideration in custody decisions will not only uphold constitutional principles but also serve the best interests of the child.

The Indirect Gender Discrimination Against Fathers in Parenting Orders

The article “Hidden Bias: The Indirect Gender Discrimination Against Fathers in Parenting Orders” from De Rebus explores the systemic biases within South Africa’s legal framework that disadvantage fathers in custody decisions. Despite the Constitution and the Children’s Act advocating for gender equality and the best interests of the child, courts often favour mothers in custody battles, perpetuating a harmful narrative that undermines the father-child relationship.

Legal Framework and Gender Equality

South Africa’s Constitution and the Children’s Act 38 of 2005 emphasize the best interests of the child and gender equality. Section 9 of the Constitution guarantees equality before the law and prohibits unfair discrimination based on gender. The Children’s Act provides a framework for considering the best interests of the child, including the nature of the relationship with each parent and the capacity of each parent to provide for the child’s needs. The language of the Act is gender-neutral, intending to place mothers and fathers on equal footing regarding their parental rights and responsibilities.

Persistent Judicial Bias

Despite these legal provisions, courts frequently award primary care to mothers, even when fathers have demonstrated equal or greater involvement in their children’s upbringing. This pattern suggests an implicit bias rooted in traditional gender roles, which influences judicial decisions. For instance, in the case of B v M (2006), the court awarded primary residence to the mother despite the father’s significant involvement, citing the need for stability and continuity. This decision reflects an underlying assumption of mothers as the default primary caregivers.

Psychological Impact on Children

Psychological research underscores the importance of maintaining strong relationships between children and both parents’ post-divorce. Reduced contact with fathers, especially when they have been primary caregivers, can adversely affect a child’s emotional well-being and development. Studies by the Human Sciences Research Council (HSRC) indicate that active fatherhood positively impacts children’s cognitive abilities, social behaviours, and emotional health. Disruption of the paternal bond automatically leads to emotional distress, behavioural issues, and difficulties in social relationships. These outcomes highlight the necessity for care arrangements that facilitate the meaningful involvement of both parents, aligning with the child’s best interests as mandated by the Children’s Act.

Societal Statistics and Implications

According to Statistics South Africa’s General Household Survey 2019, 42% of children live only with their mothers, while just 4% live only with their fathers. Approximately 32.7% of children live with both parents, and 21.3% live with neither biological parent. These statistics reflect general living arrangements and suggest that mothers are predominantly the primary caregivers. The lack of detailed national statistics on primary care awards post-divorce makes it challenging to quantify the disparity directly. However, considering societal trends and anecdotal evidence, it is reasonable to infer that a similar disparity exists in court-ordered primary care arrangements. This societal pattern suggests that fathers face systemic challenges in obtaining primary caregiving roles post-divorce.

Legacy of the Tender Years and Maternal Preference Doctrine

The tender years’ doctrine, which historically favoured maternal primary care of young children, has been officially abolished. However, its influence lingers in contemporary primary care decisions. Courts often emphasise the need for stability and continuity in the child’s life, which can inadvertently favour the mother, especially when traditional caregiving roles have been established. For example, in P v P (2007), despite the father’s active involvement and expert testimony confirming his capability, the court granted primary care to the mother, emphasising the importance of maintaining the children’s established routines and environments. This decision reflects an ongoing reliance on traditional gender roles, potentially at the expense of recognising the father’s caregiving contributions.

The maternal preference rule and the tender age rule were effectively abolished with the promulgation of the Children’s Act 38 of 2005 in South Africa

This Act introduced a gender-neutral approach to parental responsibilities and rights, emphasising the best interests of the child rather than defaulting to maternal preference.

Given that the Children’s Act came into effect in 2005, these rules have been officially abolished for approximately 20 years as of 2025

Constitutional Concerns and Indirect Discrimination

Section 9 of the Constitution guarantees equality before the law and prohibits unfair discrimination on various grounds, including gender. The apparent preference for mothers in primary care decisions raises questions about indirect gender discrimination against fathers. Indirect discrimination occurs when a seemingly neutral policy or practice disproportionately affects a particular group. If primary care decisions systematically favour mothers due to entrenched stereotypes, this does infringe on fathers’ constitutional rights to equality and dignity. The Constitutional Court has recognised that practices reinforcing gender stereotypes could constitute unfair discrimination, suggesting that primary care award practices favouring mothers based on traditional roles may be constitutionally problematic

Recommendations for Reform

To address deliberate bias and align South Africa with international trends promoting equal parenting, the article recommends several measures:
• Comprehensive data collection on primary care awards post-divorce to assess disparities and inform policy decisions.
• Judicial training on gender bias to recognise and mitigate unconscious biases in primary care decisions.
• Promotion of shared parenting to facilitate substantial involvement from both parents.
• Public awareness campaigns to educate society on the value of father involvement in child development.
• Reform in the office of the Family Advocate to evaluate each parent’s caregiving history and capabilities without presumption based on gender.
The Constitution of South Africa emphasises equality and non-discrimination, which are fundamental principles that should guide all aspects of society, including family law and parenting orders. Here are the relevant chapters and sections of the Constitution that reference the equality of people and genders:

Relevant Sections of the South African Constitution

  1. Chapter 1: Founding Provisions
    o Section 1: The Republic of South Africa is founded on values, including human dignity, the achievement of equality, and the advancement of human rights and freedoms.
  2. Chapter 2: Bill of Rights
    o Section 9: Equality
     Subsection 1: Everyone is equal before the law and has the right to equal protection and benefit of the law.
     Subsection 2: Equality includes the full and equal enjoyment of all rights and freedoms. Legislative and other measures designed to protect or advance persons disadvantaged by unfair discrimination may be taken.
     Subsection 3: The state may not unfairly discriminate directly or indirectly against anyone on one or more grounds, including race, gender, sex, pregnancy, marital status, ethnic or social origin, color, sexual orientation, age, disability, religion, conscience, belief, culture, language, and birth.
     Subsection 4: No person may unfairly discriminate directly or indirectly against anyone on one or more grounds in terms of subsection (3).
    Maternal Preference and Tender Age Rule in South Africa
    Historically, the maternal preference rule and the tender age rule favoured mothers in custody decisions, particularly for young children. These rules assume that mothers are naturally better caregivers, especially for infants and toddlers. However, these doctrines have been officially abolished in South Africa, reflecting a shift towards gender-neutral approaches in family law.
    • Maternal Preference Rule: This rule historically granted mothers primary custody of young children, assuming they were the natural primary caregivers. Despite its official abolition, remnants of this bias can still be seen to this day in the majority of court decisions[1].
    • Tender Age Rule: Similar to the maternal preference rule, this doctrine presumed that young children should be with their mothers. It has also been abolished, but its influence persists in judicial practices[2].
    Continued Bias and Its Impact
    Despite the legal framework advocating for gender equality, the article from De Rebus highlights ongoing biases against fathers in parenting orders. Courts often award primary care to mothers, even when fathers are equally or more involved in their children’s lives. This bias can harm children by limiting their contact with their fathers, which is crucial for their emotional and psychological development.
    Key Points from the De Rebus Article
  3. Legal Framework: The Children’s Act and the Constitution emphasize the best interests of the child and gender equality. However, in practice, courts often favour mothers in custody decisions.
  4. Psychological Impact: Reduced contact with fathers can negatively affect children’s emotional well-being and development. Active fatherhood is beneficial for children’s cognitive abilities, social behaviours, and emotional health.
  5. Societal Statistics: A significant percentage of children live only with their mothers, reflecting a societal trend that may influence legal outcomes.
  6. Potential Prejudice: The persistence of traditional gender roles in judicial decisions can lead to indirect gender discrimination against fathers, contravening constitutional principles.
  7. Recommendations for Reform: The article suggests measures such as judicial training on gender bias, promotion of shared parenting, and public awareness campaigns to address these issues.
    To address the pervasive and harmful narrative of maternal superiority in child-rearing and to promote the equality of both parents in South Africa, a multifaceted approach is required. Here are twenty solutions that should be immediately implemented to rectify this issue both legally and through public awareness:
    Legal Reforms
  8. Both parents, irrelevant and irrespective of marital status, religion, culture, tradition, other social norms, and practices, must automatically receive automatic, daily, physical, emotional, psychological, and contact care, guardianship and maintenance of their child from birth.
  9. Judicial Training on Gender Bias: Implement comprehensive training programs for judges and magistrates to recognise and mitigate unconscious gender biases in custody decisions.
  10. Mandatory Gender-Neutral Language: Ensure that all legal documents, court orders, and legislation use gender-neutral language to automatically reinforce the equality of both parents.
  11. Review and Amend Custody Laws: Conduct a thorough review of existing custody laws to identify and amend any provisions that may implicitly favour one parent over the other.
  12. Equal Parenting Legislation: Enact legislation that explicitly mandates automatic equal consideration for both parents in custody decisions, emphasising the best interests of the child.
  13. Data Collection on Custody Awards: Establish a national database to collect and analyse data on custody awards post-divorce to identify disparities and inform policy decisions.
  14. Reform the Office of the Family Advocate: Ensure that investigations by the Family Advocate evaluate each parent’s caregiving history and capabilities without presumption based on gender.
  15. Legal Support for Fathers: Provide legal aid and support services specifically for fathers to help them navigate custody disputes and advocate for their rights.
  16. Enforcement of Existing Laws: Strengthen the enforcement of existing laws that prohibit gender discrimination in custody decisions.
  17. Regular Audits of Custody Decisions: Conduct regular audits of custody decisions to ensure compliance with gender equality principles and identify any patterns of bias.
  18. Public Reporting of Custody Statistics: Publish regular reports on custody statistics to increase transparency and accountability in the judicial system.
  19. Public Awareness and Education
  20. Public Awareness Campaigns: Launch nationwide campaigns to educate the public about the importance of father involvement in child development and the equality of both parents.
  21. School Programs: Integrate educational programs in schools to teach children about gender equality and the roles of both parents in caregiving.
  22. Media Engagement: Partner with media outlets to promote positive stories and role models of active fatherhood and shared parenting.
  23. Community Workshops: Organize community workshops and seminars to discuss the benefits of equal parenting and address societal stereotypes.
  24. Parenting Resources: Develop and distribute resources that provide guidance on shared parenting and the roles of both parents in child-rearing.
  25. Support Groups for Fathers: Establish support groups and networks for fathers to share experiences, provide mutual support, and advocate for their rights.
  26. Collaboration with NGOs: Partner with non-governmental organizations to promote gender equality in parenting and provide support services for families.
  27. Employer Policies: Encourage employers to implement family-friendly policies that support both parents in balancing work and caregiving responsibilities.
  28. Public Service Announcements: Use public service announcements to challenge traditional stereotypes and promote the message of parental equality.
  29. Research and Advocacy: Support research on the impact of father involvement on child development and use the findings to advocate for policy changes and public awareness.

So long as there is a presumption of maternal superiority, harm will continue to be done to both children and fathers.

References
[1] Maternal Preference Rule: Towards Equality In Parental Rights?
[2] Child Living Arrangements – Family and Divorce law in South Africa – A … 

Proposed Solutions

  1. Both parents, irrelevant and irrespective of marital status, religion, culture, tradition, other social norms, and practices, must automatically receive automatic, daily, physical, emotional, psychological contact, care, guardianship and maintenance of their child from birth.
  2. Under no circumstances may there be a presumption of superiority of the gender of one parent over the other. Both parents, meaning the mother and father, man and woman, irrespective and irrelevant of their gender, must automatically be deemed equally able and capable to raise the child.
  3. Mandatory mediation must be the automatic first step in all family law disputes, with no alternative.
  4. Judges and magistrates must be required to automatically enforce Sections 21, 33, 49, 70, 71, and 150 of the Children’s Act.
  5. False allegations must automatically result in mandatory legal consequences, including perjury charges, for both the person making the false allegations as well as his or her legal advisors, including but not limited to lawyers, advocates, psychologists, social workers, etc.
  6. Alternative Dispute Resolution (ADR) must automatically be prioritized over adversarial litigation.
  7. The government must implement strict timeframes for resolving family law disputes. Not exceeding 90 days, including the mediation of divorce, maintenance and parenting plan that is endorsed by the family advocate and made a final order of court not exceeding 90 days.
  8. Lawyers, advocates, psychologists and social workers who prolong cases (for financial gain) must automatically be held accountable.
  9. Mediation? Alternative Dispute Resolution (ADR) and arbitration services must be made accessible to all families.
  10. Public awareness campaigns must be launched to educate parents on their rights and responsibilities.
  11. A national oversight body should be established to monitor family law cases.
  12. Political and legal figures who obstruct reform should be investigated for misconduct.
    Solution: Implementing Mediation and Alternative Dispute Resolution in Family Law
  13. The Urgent Need for Mediation and Alternative Dispute Resolution (ADR)
    Mediation and/ or Alternative Dispute Resolution (ADR) are globally recognised as the most effective means of resolving family law disputes while minimising harm to children and reducing litigation costs. The current South African family law system, however, prioritises adversarial litigation over cooperative resolution, fuelling unnecessary conflict and harming families.
  14. To address this, the Children’s Act (Sections 21, 33, 49, 70, 71, and 150), the Mediation in Certain Divorce Matters Act, the Maintenance Act 99 of 1998, Court-Annexed Mediation, the Divorce Act, and the Magistrates’ Courts Mediation Rules all ready in existence and already provide mechanisms for mediation. However, these provisions are deliberately underutilised or outright ignored by legal practitioners, magistrates and judges who profit from prolonged disputes.
  15. South Africa must adopt an automatic mandatory mediation model, as seen in other progressive legal systems, to ensure that family disputes are resolved efficiently, equitably, and in the best interests of the child. Furthermore, the criminalisation of false accusations must automatically be enforced, holding both parents and legal representatives accountable to prevent manipulation of the justice system. 

The Fake Narrative of Maternal Superiority in a Nutshell

The narrative of maternal superiority in child-rearing within South Africa is not only outdated but also harmful, perpetuating biases that negatively impact the father- child relationship and contravene the principles of equality enshrined in the Constitution. Despite the progressive legal framework provided by the Constitution and the Children’s Act 38 of 2005, which advocate for gender equality and the best interests of the child, the justice system continues to favour mothers above all else in custody decisions. This bias is rooted in traditional gender roles and societal stereotypes that view mothers as the natural primary caregivers, a perception that persists despite the official abolition of the maternal preference and tender age rules over a decade ago.

The Constitution of South Africa, particularly Section 9, guarantees equality before the law and prohibits unfair discrimination based on gender. The Children’s Act further emphasises that the best interests of the child are of paramount importance in all matters concerning children, providing a framework for considering the nature of the relationship with each parent and the capacity of each parent to provide for the child’s needs. However, in practice, courts often award primary care to mothers, even when fathers have demonstrated equal or greater involvement in their children’s upbringing. This pattern suggests an implicit bias that influences judicial decisions, undermining the constitutional principle of equality.

Psychological research underscores the importance of maintaining strong relationships between children and both parents’ post-divorce. Studies indicate that active fatherhood positively impacts children’s cognitive abilities, social behaviours, and emotional well-being. Reduced contact with fathers, especially when they have been primary caregivers, can adversely affect a child’s emotional development, leading to emotional distress, behavioural issues, and difficulties in social relationships. These outcomes highlight the necessity for care arrangements that facilitate meaningful involvement of both parents, aligning with the child’s best interests as mandated by the Children’s Act.

Statistics from the General Household Survey 2019 reveal that 42% of children in South Africa live only with their mothers, while just 4% live only with their fathers. This disparity suggests a societal trend that is mirrored in legal outcomes, where mothers are predominantly granted primary care of their children. The lack of detailed national statistics on primary care awards post-divorce makes it challenging to quantify the disparity directly. However, considering societal trends and anecdotal evidence, it is reasonable to infer that fathers face systemic challenges in obtaining primary caregiving roles post-divorce.

The persistence of traditional gender roles in judicial decisions can lead to indirect gender discrimination against fathers. Indirect discrimination occurs when a seemingly neutral policy or practice disproportionately affects a particular group. If primary care decisions systematically favour mothers due to entrenched stereotypes, this could infringe on fathers’ constitutional rights to equality and dignity. The Constitutional Court has recognized that practices reinforcing gender stereotypes could constitute unfair discrimination, suggesting that primary care award practices favouring mothers based on traditional roles may be constitutionally problematic.

To address these biases and promote the equality of both parents, several measures must be implemented. Judicial training on gender bias is essential to recognize and mitigate unconscious biases in custody decisions. Comprehensive data collection on primary care awards post-divorce is necessary to assess disparities and inform policy decisions. Public awareness campaigns should be launched to educate society on the value of father involvement in child development and challenge traditional stereotypes. Legal reforms should include the enactment of legislation that explicitly mandates equal consideration for both parents in custody decisions, emphasising the best interests of the child.

Additionally, support services for fathers, such as legal aid and support groups, should be established to help them navigate custody disputes and advocate for their rights. The Office of the Family Advocate should be reformed to ensure that investigations evaluate each parent’s caregiving history and capabilities without presumption based on gender. Public reporting of custody statistics and regular audits of custody decisions can increase transparency and accountability in the judicial system.

In conclusion, dismantling the harmful narrative of maternal superiority requires a coordinated effort from the legal community, policymakers, educators, media, and society at large. By addressing both legal and societal aspects, South Africa can move towards a more equitable approach to parenting that benefits children and upholds the constitutional principles of equality and non-discrimination. It is imperative to ensure that both parents are recognised and valued equally in all aspects of child-rearing, promoting environments where children can thrive with the support of both parents.

Scientific References Supporting Father Involvement

  1. Sarkadi, A., Kristiansson, R., Oberklaid, F., & Bremberg, S. (2008). “Fathers’ involvement and children’s developmental outcomes: a systematic review of longitudinal studies.” Acta Paediatrica, 97(2), 153–158. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/18052995/​Sage Journals+1PubMed+1
  2. Dubowitz, H., Black, M. M., Cox, C. E., et al. (2001). “Father involvement and children’s functioning at age 6 years: a multisite study.” Child Maltreatment, 6(4), 300–309. https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/abs/10.1177/1077559501006004003​Sage Journals
  3. Garfield, C. F., & Isacco, A. (2010). “Father involvement and child well-being.” Journal of Paediatrics and Child Health, 46(7-8), 369–372. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/20598076/​PubMed
  4. Jeong, J., McCoy, D. C., Yousafzai, A. K., et al. (2016). “Paternal stimulation and early child development in low- and middle-income countries.” Child Development, 87(5), 1545–1561. https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC6823210/​PMC+1PMC+1
  5. McMunn, A., Martin, P., Kelly, Y., & Sacker, A. (2017). “Fathers’ involvement: correlates and consequences for child socioemotional behavior in the United Kingdom.” Journal of Family Issues, 38(8), 1109–1131. https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/full/10.1177/0192513X15622415​Sage Journals
  6. Cano, T., Perales, F., & Baxter, J. (2018). “A matter of time: father involvement and child cognitive outcomes.” Journal of Marriage and Family, 80(4), 919–934. https://lifecoursecentre.org.au/publications/a-matter-of-time-father-involvement-and-child-cognitive-outcomes/​Life Course Centre
  7. Zhong, Y. (2023). “The unique role of father involvement in child socioemotional development.” Journal of Education, Humanities and Social Sciences, 8, 45–52. https://drpress.org/ojs/index.php/EHSS/article/view/4592​Darcy & Roy Press
  8. Bornstein, M. H., & Putnick, D. L. (2016). “Fathers’ involvement and early child development in a low-resource setting.” Child Development Perspectives, 10(4), 305–310. https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC9262343/​PMC
  9. Raeburn, P. (2014). Do Fathers Matter? What Science Is Telling Us About the Parent We’ve Overlooked. Scientific American/Farrar, Straus and Giroux. https://time.com/3028547/youve-come-a-long-way-daddy/​Time
  10. Glowiak, M. (2022). “A father’s adult attachment style may be directly related to anxiety in children.” Verywell Mind. https://www.verywellmind.com/fathers-adult-attachment-styles-can-affect-anxiety-in-children-and-adolescents-5499089​Verywell Mind
  11. Mõttus, R., et al. (2024). “Like father, like son? The complex factors that shape a parent’s influence on their child.” The Guardian. https://www.theguardian.com/lifeandstyle/2024/apr/27/like-father-like-son-the-complex-factors-that-shape-a-parents-influence-on-their-child​The Guardian
  12. Gold, C. M. (2025). “Absent dads may impact a kid’s romantic relationships—here’s how moms can help.” Parents. https://www.parents.com/how-absent-dads-impact-kids-11701486​Parents
  13. Vogue Editors. (2024). “The father of my child has taught me more about good parenting than almost anyone else.” Vogue. [https://www.vogue.com/article/fathers-good-parent
  14. Pleck, Joseph H. Father Involvement: Levels, Sources, and Consequences. The Role of the Father in Child Development, edited by Michael E. Lamb, 5th ed., Wiley, 2010, pp. 58–93.
    https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/book/10.1002/9781119948552
  15. Lamb, Michael E. “The Role of the Father in Child Development: An Introduction.” The Role of the Father in Child Development, edited by Michael E. Lamb, 5th ed., Wiley, 2010, pp. 1–31.
    https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/book/10.1002/9781119948552
  16. Lee, Shawna J., et al. “Fathers’ involvement in child care and perceptions of parenting skill over the transition to parenthood.” Journal of Family Issues, vol. 40, no. 10, 2019, pp. 1372–1394.
    https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/abs/10.1177/0192513X19848790
  17. Cabrera, Natasha J., et al. “Fatherhood in the Twenty‐First Century.” Child Development, vol. 71, no. 1, 2000, pp. 127–136. https://srcd.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/1467-8624.00126
  18. Panter-Brick, Catherine, et al. “Engaging fathers: recommendations for a game change in parenting interventions based on a systematic review of the global evidence.” Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, vol. 55, no. 11, 2014, pp. 1187–1212.
    https://acamh.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/jcpp.12280
  19. McLanahan, Sara, and Gary Sandefur. Growing Up with a Single Parent: What Hurts, What Helps. Harvard UP, 1994.
    https://www.hup.harvard.edu/books/9780674364080
  20. Tamis-LeMonda, Catherine S., et al. “Fathers and mothers at play with their 2- and 3-year-olds: Contributions to language and cognitive development.” Child Development, vol. 75, no. 6, 2004, pp. 1806–1820.
    https://srcd.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1467-8624.2004.00818.x

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